Syllabus For Iit

IIT SYLLABUS CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS Physical chemistry General topics: Concept of atoms and molecules; Dalton's atomic theory; Mole concept; Chemical formulae; Balanced chemical equations; Calculations (based on mole concept) involving common oxidation-reduction, neutralisation, and displacement reactions; Concentration in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and normality.Gaseous and liquid states: Absolute scale of temperature, necessary gas equation; Deviation from ideality, van der Waals equation; Kinetic theory of gases, average, root mean square and most probable velocities and their relation with temperature; Law of partial pressures; Vapour pressure; Diffusion of gases.Atomic structure and chemical bonding: Bohr model, spectrum of hydrogen atom, quantum numbers; Wave-particle dualiy, de Broglie hypothesis; Uncertainty principle; Qualitative quantum mechanical picture of hydrogen atom, shapes of s, p and d orbitals; Electronic configurations of elements (up to atomic no. 36); Aufbau principle; Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule; Orbital overlap and covalent bond; Hybridisation involving s, p and d orbitals only; Orbital life diagrams for homonuclear diatomic species; Hydrogen bond; Polarity in molecules, dipole moment (qualitative aspects only); VSEPR model and shapes of molecules (linear, angular, triangular, square planar, pyramidal, square pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral and octahedral).Energetics: First law of thermodynamics; Internal energy, work and heat, pressure-volume work; Enthalpy, Hess's law; Heat of reaction, fusion and vapourization; 2nd law of thermodynamics; Entropy; Free energy; Criterion of spontaneity. Chemical equilibrium: Law of mass action; Equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier's principle (effect of concentration, heat and pressure); Significance of DG and DGo in chemical equilibrium; Solubility product, common ion effect, pH and buffer solutions; Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts); Hydrolysis of salts. Electrochemistry: Electrochemical cells and cell reactions; Standard electrode potentials; Nernst equation and its relation to DG; Electrochemical series, emf of galvanic cells; Faraday's laws of electrolysis; Electrolytic conductance, specific, equivalent and molar conductivity, Kohlrausch's law; Concentration cells. Chemical kinetics: Rates of chemical reactions; Order of reactions; Rate constant; First order reactions; Heat dependence of rate constant (Arrhenius equation). Solid state: Classification of solids, crystalline state, seven crystal processes (cell parameters a, b, c, alpha, beta, gamma), close packed structure of solids (cubic), packing in fcc, bcc and hcp lattices; Nearest neighbours, ionic radii, simple ionic compounds, spot defects. Solutions: Raoult's law; Molecular mass determination from lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling spot and depression of freezing point. Surface chemistry: Elementary concepts of adsorption (excluding adsorption isotherms); Colloids: types, methods of preparation and general properties; Elementary plans of emulsions, surfactants and micelles (only definitions and examples). Nuclear chemistry: Radioactivity: isotopes and isobars; Properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays; Kinetics of radioactive decay (decay series excluded), carbon dating; Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron ratio; Brief discussion on fission and fusion reactions. Inorganic ChemistryIsolation/preparation and properties regarding the following non-metals: Boron, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur and halogens; Properties of allotropes of carbon (only diamond and graphite), phosphorus and sulphur.Preparation and properties regarding the following compounds: Oxides, peroxides, hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium; Boron: diborane, boric acid and borax; Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums; Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid); Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide; Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia; Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine; Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide; Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate; Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides.Transition elements (3d series): Definition, general characteristics, oxidation states and their stabilities, colour (excluding the details of electronic transitions) and calculation of spin-only magnetic moment; Coordination compounds: nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, cis-trans and ionisation isomerisms, hybridization and geometries of mononuclear coordination compounds (linear, tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral).Preparation and properties regarding the following compounds: Oxides and chlorides of tin and lead; Oxides, chlorides and sulphates of Fe2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+; Potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, silver oxide, silver nitrate, silver thiosulphate. Ores and minerals:Commonly occurring ores and minerals of iron, copper, tin, lead, magnesium, aluminium, zinc and silver. Extractive metallurgy: Chemical principles and reactions only (industrial details excluded); Carbon reduction method (iron and tin); Self reduction method (copper and lead); Electrolytic reduction method (magnesium and aluminium); Cyanide process (silver and gold). Principles of qualitative analysis: Groups I to V (only Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Bi3+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Zn2+, Mn2+ and Mg2+); Nitrate, halides (excluding fluoride), sulphate and sulphide. Organic Chemistry   Concepts: Hybridisation of carbon; Sigma and pi-bonds; Shapes of simple organic molecules; Structural and geometrical isomerism; Optical isomerism of atom structure to 3 asymmetric centres, (R,S and E,Z nomenclature excluded); IUPAC nomenclature of simple organic compounds (only hydrocarbons, mono-functional and bi-functional compounds); Conformations of ethane and butane (Newman projections); Resonance and hyperconjugation; Keto-enol tautomerism; Determination of empirical and molecular formulae of simple compounds (only combustion method); Hydrogen bonds: definition and their effects on physical properties of alcohols and carboxylic acids; Inductive and resonance effects on acidity and basicity of organic acids and bases; Polarity and inductive effects in alkyl halides; Reactive intermediates produced during homolytic and heterolytic bond cleavage; Formation, structure and stability of carbocations, carbanions and free radicals. Preparation, properties and reactions of alkanes: Homologous series, physical properties of alkanes (melting points, boiling points and density); Combustion and halogenation of alkanes; Preparation of alkanes by Wurtz reaction and decarboxylation reactions. Preparation, properties and reactions of alkenes and alkynes: Physical properties of alkenes and alkynes (boiling points, density and dipole moments); Acidity of alkynes; Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes and alkynes (excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination); Reactions of alkenes with KMnO4 and ozone; Reduction of alkenes and alkynes; Preparation of alkenes and alkynes by elimination reactions; Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with X2, HX, HOX and H2O (X=halogen); Addition reactions of alkynes; Metal acetylides. Reactions of benzene: Structure and aromaticity; Electrophilic substitution reactions: halogenation, nitration, sulphonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation; Effect of o-, m- and p-directing groups in monosubstituted benzenes. Phenols: Acidity, electrophilic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration and sulphonation); Reimer-Tieman reaction, Kolbe reaction. Characteristic reactions regarding the following (including those mentioned above): Alkyl halides: rearrangement reactions of alkyl carbocation, Grignard reactions, nucleophilic substitution reactions; Alcohols: esterification, dehydration and oxidation, reaction with sodium, phosphorus halides, ZnCl2/concentrated HCl, conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones; Ethers:Preparation by Williamson's Synthesis; Aldehydes and Ketones: oxidation, reduction, oxime and hydrazone formation; aldol condensation, Perkin reaction; Cannizzaro reaction; haloform reaction and nucleophilic addition reactions (Grignard addition); Carboxylic acids: formation of esters, acid chlorides and amides, ester hydrolysis; Amines: basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines, preparation from nitro compounds, reaction with nitrous acid, azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines, Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts; carbylamine reaction; Haloarenes: nucleophilic aromatic substitution in haloarenes and substituted haloarenes (excluding Benzyne mechanism and Cine substitution). Carbohydrates: Classification; mono- and di-saccharides (glucose and sucrose); Oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation and hydrolysis of sucrose. Amino acids and peptides: General structure (only primary structure for peptides) and physical properties. Properties and uses of some important polymers: Natural rubber, cellulose, nylon, teflon and PVC. Practical organic chemistry: Detection of elements (N, S, halogens); Detection and identification regarding the following functional groups: hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic), carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone), carboxyl, amino and nitro; Chemical methods of separation of mono-functional organic compounds from binary mixtures.







PHYSICS SYLLABUS General: Units and dimensions, dimensional analysis; fewest count, significant figures; Methods of measurement and error analysis for physical quantities pertaining to the following experiments: Experiments based on creating use of Vernier calipers and screw gauge (micrometer), Determination of g creating use of simple pendulum, Young' modulus by Searle's method, Critical heat of a liquid creating use of calorimeter, focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens creating use of u-v method, Velocity of sound creating use of resonance column, Verification of Ohm' law creating use of voltmeter and ammeter, and critical resistance regarding the fabric of a wire creating use of meter bridge and post office box. Mechanics: Kinematics in one and 3 dimensions (Cartesian coordinates only), projectiles; Uniform Circular motion; Relative velocity. Newton's laws of motion; Inertial and uniformly accelerated frames of reference; Static and dynamic friction; Kinetic and potential energy; Work and power; Conservation of linear momentum and mechanical energy. Processes of particles; Centre of mass and its motion; Impulse; Elastic and inelastic collisions.Law of gravitation; Gravitational potential and field; Acceleration due to gravity; Motion of planets and satellites in circular orbits; Escape velocity. Rigid body, moment of inertia, parallel and perpendicular axes theorems, moment of inertia of uniform bodies with simple geometrical shapes; Angular momentum; Torque; Conservation of angular momentum; Dynamics of rigid bodies with fixed axis of rotation; Rolling without slipping of rings, cylinders and spheres; Equilibrium of rigid bodies; Collision of spot masses with rigid bodies. Linear and angular simple harmonic motions. Hooke's law, Young' modulus. Compression in a fluid; Pascal's law; Buoyancy; Surface life and surface tension, capillary rise; Viscosity (Poiseuille's equation excluded), Stoke's law; Terminal velocity, Streamline flow, equation of continuity, Bernoulli's theorem and its applications. Wave motion (plane waves only), longitudinal and transverse waves, superposition of waves; Progressive and stationary waves; Vibration of strings and space columns;Resonance; Beats; Velocity of sound in gases; Doppler effect (in sound). Thermal physics: Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; Calorimetry, latent heat; Heat conduction in one dimension; Elementary concepts of convection and radiation; Newton's law of cooling; Necessary gas laws; Critical heats (Cv and Cp for monoatomic and diatomic gases); Isothermal and adiabatic processes, bulk modulus of gases; Equivalence of heat and work; First law of thermodynamics and its applications (only for necessary gases); Blackbody radiation: absorptive and emissive powers; Kirchhoff's law; Wien's displacement law, Stefan's law. Electricity and magnetism: Coulomb's law; Electric field and potential; Electrical potential life of an procedure of spot charges and of electrical dipoles in a uniform electrostatic field; Electric field lines; Flux of electric field; Gauss's law and its application in simple cases, such as, to retrieve field due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell. Capacitance; Parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectrics; Capacitors in series and parallel; Life stored in a capacitor. Electric current; Ohm's law; Series and parallel arrangements of resistances and cells; Kirchhoff's laws and simple applications; Heating effect of current. Biot-avart's law and Ampere's law; Magnetic field near a current-carrying straight wire, along the axis of a circular coil and inside an extended straight solenoid; Force on a moving charge and on a current-carrying wire in a uniform magnetic field. Magnetic moment of a current loop; Effect of a uniform magnetic field on a current loop; Moving coil galvanometer, voltmeter, ammeter and their conversions. Electromagnetic induction: Faraday's law, Lenz's law; Self and mutual inductance; RC, LR and LC circuits with d.c. and a.c. sources. Optics: Rectilinear propagation of light; Reflection and refraction at plane and spherical surfaces; Total internal reflection; Deviation and dispersion of light by a prism; Thin lenses; Combinations of mirrors and thin lenses; Magnification. Wave nature of light: Huygen's principle, interference limited to Young's double-slit experiment.Modern physics: Atomic nucleus; Alpha, beta and gamma radiations; Law of radioactive decay; Decay constant; Half-life and mean life; Binding life and its calculation; Fission and fusion processes; Life calculation in these processes. Photoelectric effect; Bohr's theory of hydrogen-like atoms; Characteristic and continuous X-rays, Moseley's law; de Broglie wavelength of reason waves. MATHEMATICS SYLLABUS Algebra: Algebra of complex numbers, addition, multiplication, conjugation, polar representation, properties of modulus and principal argument, triangle inequality, cube roots of unity, geometric interpretations.Quadratic equations with real coefficients, relations between roots and coefficients, formation of quadratic equations with provided roots, symmetric functions of roots.Arithmetic, geometric and harmonic progressions, arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means, sums of finite arithmetic and geometric progressions, infinite geometric series, sums of squares and cubes regarding first n natural numbers.Logarithms and their properties. Permutations and combinations, Binomial theorem for a positive integral index, properties of binomial coefficients.Matrices like a rectangular array of real numbers, equality of matrices, addition, multiplication by a scalar and product of matrices, transpose of a matrix, determinant of a square matrix of order up to three, inverse of a square matrix of order up to three, properties of these matrix operations, diagonal, symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices and their properties, solutions of simultaneous linear equations in 3 or 3 variables.Addition and multiplication rules of probability, conditional probability, Bayes Theorem, independence of events, computation of probability of events creating use of permutations and combinations.Trigonometry: Trigonometric functions, their periodicity and graphs, addition and subtraction formulae, formulae involving multiple and sub-multiple angles, general solution of trigonometric equations.Relations between sides and angles of a triangle, sine rule, cosine rule, half-angle formula and the region of a triangle, inverse trigonometric functions (principal price only).Analytical geometry: 3 dimensions: Cartesian coordinates, distance between 3 points, section formulae, shift of origin.Equation of a straight line in different forms, angle between 3 lines, distance of a spot from a line; Lines through the spot of intersection of 3 provided lines, equation regarding the bisector regarding the angle between 3 lines, concurrency of lines; Centroid, orthocentre, incentre and circumcentre of a triangle.Equation of a circle in different forms, equations of tangent, normal and chord.Parametric equations of a circle, intersection of a circle with a straight line or a circle, equation of a circle through the points of intersection of 3 circles and those of a circle and a straight line.Equations of a parabola, ellipse and hyperbola in standard form, their foci, directrices and eccentricity, parametric equations, equations of tangent and normal. Locus Problems.Three dimensions: Direction cosines and direction ratios, equation of a straight line in space, equation of a plane, distance of a spot from a plane.Differential calculus: Real valued functions of an actual variable, into, onto and one-to-one functions, sum, difference, product and quotient of 3 functions, composite functions, absolute value, polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.Limit and continuity of a function, limit and continuity regarding the sum, difference, product and quotient of 3 functions, L'Hospital rule of evaluation of limits of functions.Even and odd functions, inverse of a function, continuity of composite functions, intermediate price property of continuous functions.Derivative of a function, derivative regarding the sum, difference, product and quotient of 3 functions, chain rule, derivatives of polynomial, rational, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.Derivatives of implicit functions, derivatives up to order two, geometrical interpretation regarding the derivative, tangents and normals, increasing and decreasing functions, maximum and minimum values of a function, Rolle's Theorem and Lagrange's Mean Price Theorem.Integral calculus: Integration as the inverse process of differentiation, indefinite integrals of standard functions, definite integrals and their properties, Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.Integration by parts, integration by the methods of substitution and partial fractions, application of definite integrals to the determination of regions involving simple curves.Formation of ordinary differential equations, solution of homogeneous differential equations, separation of variables method, linear first order differential equations.Vectors: Addition of vectors, scalar multiplication, dot and cross products, scalar triple products and their geometrical interpretations.

A

Uh oh. Chemistry - the phrase itself can make one's eyes glaze over. But wait, this is "essential oil chemistry'. MUCH more fun! While even beginning aromatherapy students are place off by the mere mention regarding the subject, they eventually realize the importance of understanding at fewest the fundamentals. The basics of essential oil chemistry shall help you appreciate what gives a fine oil its special aroma, help you more carefully discern a good oil from a second-rate one, and can improve your practice of creating use of essential oils therapeutically. The greatest benefits of essential oils lies in their potential for true medicinal applications, where their antiviral, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties are effectively utilized. And it is the understanding of their chemistry that enables the practitioner to select the right oils and use them most appropriately. Convinced? Well here is a primer to obtain you started... So, howcome are essential oils called "oils" anyway? They do not look greasy, and they tend to evaporate completely, unlike common "fixed" oils (such as olive, grapeseed, hazelnut and the like). Essential oils and fixed oils share a similar chemical foundation: their structures are based on the linking of carbon and hydrogen atoms in different configurations. But this is really where the similarity ends. Fixed oils are created up of molecules comprised of 3 long chains of carbon atoms bound together at one end, called a triglyceride. Every fixed oil is created up of just a little different triglyceride arrangements - olive oil, for example, is primarily created up of oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids (the names of specific carbon-hydrogen chains forming the triglycerides). Their long-chain shape holds them in a liquid state which does atom structure problems evaporate. Volatile oils are another reason - volatile oils do with no problems evaporate, due in-part to their smaller, more complex structures. Essential oils are a sub-category of volatile oils, essential oils being specifically those volatile oils that have been distilled directly from plants (rather than science department made, or from another otherwise "inorganic" source). Essential oils still hold a core structure of linked carbon and hydrogen atoms, but they return in a best variations of shapes within brief chains, rings and multiple-rings hooked together. Each of these core structures shall have what is known like a "functional group" attached - a sort of "molecular sub-unit". Despite their seeming complexity, though, essential oils are still very compatible with mammalian biology - their atomic structure allows them to penetrate into the deepest regions of our bodies, and even to centers of our cells.







The therapeutic action of an essential oil is primarily determined by the "functional groups" located within the molecules that make up that oil. An essential oil is definitely created up of many lone molecular constituents. Each of these natural chemicals is formed of a carbon-hydrogen structure with a functional team attached. It is the combination regarding the base structure AND the attached functional team that creates a single, special molecule. And MANY of these special molecules combine to shape ONE essential oil. As you can see, essential oils are really very complex in their chemical nature. There exists nearly infinite possibilities of functional team and base ring or chain combinations. And ONE essential oil alone shall be created up of HUNDREDS of these different molecular arrangements. Do not worry, though! While it sounds complex, one needn't have knowledge of all the precise chemical details to use essential oils therapeutically. Just have knowledge of that any lone essential oil is comprised of a little natural chemicals that make up the bulk regarding the oil, and many minor "trace" constituents that also affect most aroma and therapeutic activity. The greatest natural, undiluted, properly distilled essential oils with all the primary and minor chemical constituents shall have the finest aromas AND the greatest potent therapeutic action. Many factors in an essential oil's production affect the total no. and relative amounts of lone chemicals located within the final product. These with where the plant was grown, soil and climate conditions, time of harvest, distillation equipment, plus the time, heat and compression of distillation. This can release you an system as to howcome 3 varieties regarding the similar to oil can smell so different: The full, nice bouquet of a fine essential oil shall contain a myriad of notes, telling you that all natural components are present and in balanced amounts. To greatest understand this, we shall examine Lavender essential oil; higher than fifty lone molecules have been identified in pure lavender essential oil. The aromatherapist should do not forget that ALL of these chemicals located in pure and natural Lavender oil work together to make a therapeutic effect. For example, the linalool molecule is antiviral and antibacterial; the linalyl acetate is emotionally calming; other primary components within cineol, limonene, pinene and others are all noted for specific biologic and aromatic activity. It is the combined, balanced, synergistic action of these chemicals that make pure, high-quality Lavender such a best healer. What does this mean to lay-practitioner? That it's important to discover a nice smelling lavender oil! Each lone chemical, most primary and minor, has a distinct smell, and is talked about in terms of "notes" within the overall lavender aroma. Little of these are sweet, some citrusy, some are herbaceous, and some camphorous (and the list goes on). A precise no. of each shall make a sure Lavender aroma. Some lavenders are more tasty (and shall that is why more relaxing), others are more herbaceous. Your nose is an incredible detector of essential oil chemistry, and you will be surprised how effective it is at choosing the finest, most therapeutically valuable oil. Your nose can tell you if all the constituents are in balance, if the oil is fresh, and interestingly, also if the oil is right for you - trust you in this regard! A balanced approach in aromatherapy, as in all of natural medicine, is best. The greatest effective practitioner shall hold a well-developed "internal pendulum" combined with a solid education. Significant variations exist within the quality of essential oils; it is really non-pricey to buy the higher grades of oil, as their synergy of expertly distilled chemicals shall have the greater therapeutic action. Use your nose, knowledge and intuition to discover a source you trust, that delivers consistently high-grade oils for a reasonable cost. Use these similar to faculties to skillfully select and apply the appropriate oil for each circumstance. Essential oils are complex by nature; at the similar to time, they have an exceptionally broad scope of therapeutic applications. Hopefully, this little bit of aromatherapy chemistry shall enrich your ability to help that you own health, and the well-being of those around you.

Do You Lack Magnesium?

Magnesium is an abundant metallic chemical element with the symbol Mg. It has a many non-residential applications in addition to being vital for many living organisms, within humans. It is one regarding the top 5 essential minerals wanted by the body to promote good health. The body stores about 1/2 of its total magnesium intake within the bones, and the rest resides within the body tissues, organs, and blood.
Magnesium plays a large component within the enzyme reactions responsible for life and cardiovascular function. It works together with calcium to maintain the body's chemical balance. Receiving Mg with calcium is the greatest method to obtain the full benefits of most these essential nutrients.
Deficiency Symptoms
Magnesium(CAS: 7439-95-4) can affect these processes: life metabolism, blood sweetener levels, blood compression levels, immune structure of atom other processes. In terms of physical symptoms of Mg deficiency, there is a good chance that an lone with inadequate grades shall skills development a large section of aches and pains. Cramps within the legs are often present, along with a sense of stiffness within the neck. Symptoms of Mg deficiency shall also with pain within the jaw that seems to appear for no reason. Tension headaches shall grow to more frequent. In some people, a feeling of tightness within the chest should be one deficiency symptom, consequently this specific sign shall return and go.








The heart is another location of deficiency symptoms. Without adequate grades of magnesium within the body, an lone shall begin to skills development palpitations or angina. The heartbeat itself shall grow to irregular in addition to beating at a faster pace from time to time. In some cases, it is impossible for an lone to tell the difference between symptoms brought on by a Mg deficiency and those of a mild heart attack.
Food Sources
Magnesium is located in all different categories of vegetables, nuts, seafood and grains in varied amounts. The highest concentrations are located in lime leafy greens basically due to the fact that Mg is the central atom within a plant's chlorophyll structure. Tap h2o shall also be a source, though the quantity depends on where the h2o supply returns from. Refined and processed foods, for example grains, breads and flours, are decreased in magnesium atomic absorption standard solution content.
Considerations
The likelihood of ingesting too many Mg is little due to stressors of everyday life, and the body's tendency to excrete any excess. However, if high grades of magnesium and little grades of calcium are ingested, this does pose a risk of toxicity. The reason for this is these 3 nutrients work together to hold the body's chemical grades in balance. Too many of one, and not enough regarding the other shall cause adverse effects within the body.
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A Private Online High College and Middle College Home College Based in Tampa, FL

Students of all ages who need to finish middle college or high college but cannot do so in standard schools for some reason, now have an alternative solution. They can enroll in an accredited private online high college and middle college building college based in Tampa, FL. Gulfside Academy is a virtual high college and middle college that offers building schooling programs toward earning an above college learning and high college diploma.
Gulfside Academy is registered with the Florida Department of Learning and the Hillsborough County College District.  It is likewise registered with The College Board for SAT, PSAT, NMSQT and its graduating students are compulsory to take the SAT sequential to be granted an above college diploma. In addition to that, the Academy is a member regarding the Greater Tampa Chamber of Commerce, the Worldwide high school physics edge designs Learning and the Local Coalition of Alternative and Community Schools.
Students can enroll at any position for middle college or high school. They can take all compulsory subjects for their grade position online or they shall take lone classes as credit for any deficiencies while currently enrolled in a physical school. Such lone classes shall also be taken as advanced placement classes for college credit. Advanced honors classes are likewise available.








For middle school, 15 credits in total are compulsory prior to promotion to high school. This is distributed equally between the 6th 7th, and 8th grades at 5 credits per college year in Language Arts, Corporate Studies, Science, Physical Learning and Art/Music/Health. Students are then strongly urged to take elective credits in Art, Instrumental Music or a Foreign Language. Within the 7th or 8th grade, students can already take a Well-being Elective to meet a future high college graduation requirement.
For high school, the academic diploma requires 24 credits with a Be average and no grade below C-. The online high college courses with English, Math, Science, World Languages, Corporate Studies, Fine Arts (Music, Art and Drama), Physical Education, Well-being and electives. For a standard high college diploma, World Languages and Fine Arts are not included but 3 units are added to electives to make up 21 to 24 credits.
Students can enroll online at any time regarding the year, not necessarily at the begin regarding the official college year. Classes are accessible online 24 hours a day 365 days per year. There exists no holidays. Students are that is why can work on their own schedule and at their own pace. A student is provided 4 to 16 weeks to done work equivalent to an entire semester.
All educational fabrics wanted by the students are created available online. No other books are needed. Courses are individualized and the rigorous curriculum is continually updated.
Teachers are certified for the subjects they can be handling and have higher than 15 years skills development on the average. They work individually with students, providing guidance and constant feedback. The students' parents and guardians are also urged to be in standard communication with teachers and the staff.
With an accredited private online high college and middle college building college program based in Tampa, FL like Gulfside Academy, getting a real learning is within the reach of more and more people.

Diamond Types

Diamonds are classified broadly below the categories of Natural Diamond, Synthetic Non-residential Diamond and Thin Film Diamonds on the basis of their process of origination. Diamonds remain to be the highest many fascinating present that a woman can ever dream about. The phrase "diamond" is derived from a Greek phrase "adamas" which stands for "invincible". Due to its atomic structure, diamond is the hardest natural matter. This expensive and translucent gem is created of carbon. Diamonds shall be scientifically classified into 5 types, known as kind 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b. Diamonds are created of carbon, and are extremely pure, but in almost all diamonds there exists tiny proportions of other elements, interspersed within the carbon as component of their crystal structure. These "impurities" are not what are known as inclusions, and are so tiny as to be invisible even below a very powerful microscope.







Type two Diamonds Kind two diamonds contain nitrogen. About 98% of all diamonds are kind 1a Kind 1a If the nitrogen atoms are clustered together within the carbon lattice, then the diamond is spoke about to be a Kind 1a diamond. Due to the fact that these diamonds absorb blue light, they can hold a pale yellow or beige color. 98% of diamonds are Kind 1a. Kind 1b If the nitrogen atoms are evenly spread out throughout the carbon lattice, then the diamond is spoke about to be a Kind 1b diamond. These diamonds absorb lime light as well as blue light, and hold a darker color than kind 1a diamonds. Depending on the precise concentration and spread regarding the nitrogen atoms, these diamonds can appear deep yellow ("canary"), orange, beige or greenish. Fewer then 0.1% of diamonds belong to Kind 1b. Kind 3 Kind 3 are diamonds that absorbed no, or very few, nitrogen atoms. Kind 2a These diamonds shall be regarded as the "purest regarding the pure" - they contain no, or minuscule amounts of impurities and are usually colorless. Unless, that is, the carbon tetrahedrons that make up the diamond were twisted and bent out of shape while the diamond rose to the surface regarding the earth. An imperfect carbon lattice shall make the diamond absorb some light, which shall release it a yellow, beige or even pink or red color. 1-2% of diamonds belong to Kind 2a. Kind 2b These diamonds contain no nitrogen - but they do contain boron, which absorbs red, orange and yellow light. These diamonds that is why usually appear to be blue, consequently they should possibly be grey or nearly colorless. All naturally blue diamonds belong to Kind 2b, which creates up 0.1% of all diamonds.

Enhanced Sins of Regal Lime Emerald

The pursuit of perfection, then, is the pursuit of sweetness and light. ~Matthew Arnold This plush-looking vivacious greenish stone, was fascinating man’s eyes since ages. Talk about aphrodisiac Cleopatra or Hollywood hottie Angelina Jolie, not many of womanhood was can escape the spellbinding elegance of this God’s created wonder. However, this awe-inspiring stone of The god too, faces some sins to correct. Emeralds return with usual standard flaws within them. It was very rare that a thorough translucent-to-transparent gleaming, youthful emerald is discovered. Those located till now, are one regarding the specimens of flawless greenery of nature captivated in a sparkling rock. Moreover, are prized as highly valued possessions for their owners in their treasure chests. However, this stone little is termed like an organic and authentic only if, flaws are seen in it. There exists blemishes like scratches and abrasions which are removed through a cutter’s efforts. However, flawed emeralds shall be treated and be provided the advantaged excellence of perfection of a naturally flawless one. Talking regarding the variations of errors which occur in an emerald which want treatments or enhancements for a makeover are as follows:







Inclusions- There is a close relation between a stone’s rarity and clarity. Like a gem grows, due to the fact that regarding the conditions into which it forms, there exists very fewer chances of a truly inclusion-free gem. If such remote chances occur, then, the fewer inclusions, rarer it is. Inclusions have dependence on different other factors such as: Size: The larger inclusions give more influence than smaller inclusions. Number: More many inclusions conclusions into lowering the clarity of price regarding the youthful emerald stone. Position: Inclusions are more prominent if present within the center of gemstone. Color: If an inclusion is regarding similar lime color as of emerald then treatment proves successful. However, if the inclusions are of an alternate color as regarding the shade regarding the gemstone then it creates a greater effect in clarity. Then there exists breaks which affects price of this stately gem. Breaks happen when a gemstone suffers a hard blow from harder substances like doors or walls. The variations of breaks are: Feathers- A kind of a break in a stone which appears clean and feathery. Cleavage-Emeralds commonly display a break within the stone due to vulnerability of its atomic structure. It is a flat break that has a step-like appearance. Parting- An emerald is damaged from the location of its change of direction in a gem. This usually takes location when a stone suffers an accidental hit. Therefore, stones like, emerald when undergo a defect like are filled with a fewer noticeable oil or resin which improves its clarity. To correct such imperfections of this peerless and noble lime gemstone, the above mentioned treatments are carried on to restore its grandeur and release it a valued look. Thus, these gleaming little beauties adorn the necks of nice women like you, in this world. Emerald Jewelry and Emerald Rings

Introduction to Plc and Scada

Introduction to PLC's Programmable Logic Controllers Bedford Associates, founded by Richard Morley introduced first Programmable Logic Controller in 1968.  This PLC was known as the Modular Digital Controller from which the MODICON business derived its name.  The The past regarding the PLC as told to Howard Hendricks by Dick Morley gives an interesting insight into the early development regarding the PLC.  Schnieder Quantum PLC Programmable Logic Controllers were developed to give a replacement for huge relay based manage panels.  These processes were inflexible requiring primary rewiring or replacement whenever the manage sequence was to be changed. The development regarding the micro processor from the mid 1970's have allowed Programmable Logic Controllers to take on more complex tasks and larger functions as the velocity regarding the processor increased. Ladder Logic PLC had to be maintainable by technicians and electrical personnel.  To help this the programming language of Ladder Logic was developed.  Ladder Logic is based on the relay and contact symbols technicians were used to through wiring diagrams of electrical manage panels. Until recently there was no formal programming standard for PLC's.  The introduction regarding the IEC 61131 Standard in 1998 gives a more formal approach to coding.  PLC Manufacturers have so distant been slow on the uptake regarding the standard with partial implementation.  The SearchEng articleIEC 61131-3, a Standard for PLC Software by R.W. Lewis gives an introduction to standard. The documentation for early PLC Programs was neither non existent or very poor, just providing simple addressing and simple comments, creating huge programs difficult to follow.  This was greatly improved together with the development of PLC Programming Packages. SCADA and HMI The early programmable logic controllers interfaced together with the operator in many similar method as the relay manage panel, via push-buttons and switches for manage and lamps for indication. The introduction regarding the Personal Computer (PC) within the 1980's allowed for the development of a computer based interface to operator, these where initially via simple Supervisory Manage and Data Acquisition (SCADA) processes and more recently via Dedicated Operator Manage Panels, known as Person Mechanical system Interfaces (HMI). The The past regarding the PLCas told to Howard Hendricks by Dick Morley The following are some fables associated together with first ten years regarding the programmable controller business. These Fables shall or shall not hold a basis of truth, but in general, they can be the greatest that my Alzheimer-plagued memory can do at the moment. As was often in other articles and reports, the startup of Modicon and the programmable controller sector like an entire is well documented. The programmable controller was detailed on New Year's Day, 1968, and from hence till now, a slow steady growth has allowed the manufacturing and process manage industries to take advantage of applications-oriented software. The early days however, were not as straightforward nor as simple. We had some real problems within the early days of convincing people that a container of software, albeit cased in cast iron, should do similar thing as 50 feet of cabinets, associated relays and wiring. The process was indeed difficult, and deserves some regarding the stories that I hope the reader shall be regaled with as he proceeds onward through the tortuous swamp of my mind. two of my earliest recommendations was that the programmable controller, according to my own system architecture specification, did not need to leave fast due to the fact that I felt as though velocity was not a criteria due to the fact that it should leave as fast as we wanted it to. The initial machine, which was not ever delivered, only had 125 words of memory, and velocity was not a criteria as mentioned earlier. You can imagine what happened! First, we immediately ran out of memory, and second, the mechanical system was many too slow to perform any function anywhere near the relay response time. Relay response times exist on the order of 1/60th of a second, and the topology formed by many cabinets full of relays transformed to code is significantly higher than 125 words. We expanded the memory to 1K and thence to 4K. At 4K, it stood the test of time for barely a while. Initially, marketing and memory sizes were sold in 1K, 2K, 3K, (?) and 4K. the 3K was obviously the 4K version with constrained address such that field expansion to 4K should with no problems be done. The question of speed, in part, was component regarding the early designs. No interrupts were compulsory due to the fact that the external signal conditions were directly written onto memory without any supervisory requirements or "operating system regarding the conventional type. This allowed the processor to pay attention to solving logic rather than housekeeping the I/O. Like a result, of course, the processor had to have significantly more processing force than normally associated with this volume computer; and secondly, the system had to be created to sprint fast. We increased the memory size, as mentioned above, but to obtain it to sprint fast, we had to break up the mechanical system into 3 distinct components. Initially, the programmable controller was conceived of a processor board and a memory, and that the algorithmic and logical manipulation should be done in software. This approach was painfully slow, most on the generic "store bought computers, and other items. We did, however, manage to substantially velocity up the mechanical system by creating a third primary component. This was called the logic solver. A logic solver board solved the dominant algorithms associated with solving ladder logic without the intervention and classical software approach of general-purpose processing. This meant that we ended up with 3 boards; memory, logic solver and processor. This lone step allowed us to obtain the velocity we wanted in this application-specific computer to solve the perceptually simple difficulty of multiple cabinets full of relay wiring. We had also assumed a modular approach to programmable controller. In act, the name Modicon means MOdular DIgital CONtroller. The modularity, however, was soon abandoned because, as everyone knows, reveal architectures are no good. We instead had the marketing premise that a huge footprint should contain within it the sets of problems we wished to solve. This meant that a buyer of programmable controllers should purchase huge numbers regarding similar units, and the software and hardware should be identical throughout a broad spectrum of applications in his factory. Service, maintenance and total life price should be substantially decreased than the perceived decreased price of an reveal architecture and modular expansion. Consequently at first, a supporter regarding the reveal architecture modular expansion, I soon became convinced by the marketplace, but this was folly. We took two of our early units which was aimed at the mechanical system tool sector due to the fact that of my Bedford Associates consulting background, up to one regarding the early requesters of this equipment. This specific early requester was Byrant Chuck and Grinder in Springfield, Vermont. We took the mechanical system up there, and it was heavy. This was the 084. The 084 was within the trunk of my old Pontiac, and since we wanted help carrying it in, requested some regarding the people at Bryant to help us. We went out and opened the hood, and first comment created by an outside viewer regarding the programmable controller said, "Thank The god it,s not another pastel colored piece of sheet metal. We can hypothesize from this specific comment that the ruggedness regarding the visual creation was pleasing to him, and being person (as opposed to Martian), assumed that this similar to attitude went deep inside the construction regarding the mechanical system in most the hardware and software. Indeed, this was the case, and the mechanical system like a result, was built rugged, had no ON/OFF switch, had no fans, did not make any noise and had no wear out system. To reminisce for a moment---in selecting the cores for first memories, which in itself was a revolutionary step, we selected these cores and we applied Shannon,s Law. Shannon,s Law assumes that the signal-to-noise ratio is what creates signals good or bad. There exists multiple ways to obtain the force from the signal-to-noise ratio; one is to code heavily, be triply redundant, and use many and many of error checking. There is another way, that is perfectly compatible with theory, that is to use many of signal force in another domain. A nice switch, a car battery and a D-rated light bulb shall work fairly well over an extended time period. Therefore, what we did was rather than going error checking, triply redundant and stuff, we got, and searched for and located high energy, huge ferrite core memories that had many on life per bit. We still make similar assumption today. The life per bit is extremely important---as Shannon,s theory spoke about in his most well-known 1948 paper, that the signal noise to force noise is what gives you transmission. the method we got signal force was to increase the life per bit. This we felt was distant more important than getting the life per bit increased by means of doubly transmitting it. But I digress. Bryant Chuck and Grinder place it in, and liked the machinery so many that they not ever bought one. They in turn thought it was a good idea, and as many did at that time, tried to evolve their own. two of our first primary customers, however, was Landis in Landis, PA. We flew the machinery below in a private aircraft, and with apprehension due to the fact that we were late (as usual), brought the machinery into Landis. In doing so, we tripped over the threshold. The machinery went KA-RASH onto the floor! Without many chagrin, we picked the machinery up, trundled it in. hooked it up, and little and behold, it worked barely well. Now, Landis was pleased and surprised. They were pleased due to the fact that it worked, but they were most pleasantly surprised---not due to the fact that the machinery worked---but due to the fact that the guys from Modicon fully expected the machinery to work in spite of it being dropped. In other words, the people from Modicon weren,t nervous related to the fact that it fell on the floor over the threshold. Landis subsequently took and wrapped welding coils of wire around the mechanical system to induce electro-magnetic noise to look if they should make it fail. We had them there! We used to test the programmable controllers with a Teslar coil that struck a quarter inch to half-inch arch anywhere on the system, and the programmable controller still had to continue to run. There was significant strangeness with respect to programmable controller. For example, it had no ON/OFF switch. It had no means to load software. It had no fans. It ran cool. It should survive bad, physical and thermal environments. It was not computer sector standard. There were many things that were most difficult within the acceptance regarding the programmable controller, and early acceptance was most difficult indeed. Our sales within first 4 years were abysmal. Early innovators for example Landers and General Motors were, of course, heroes to our eyes, but they should purchase tiny numbers of units and then test them within the field prior to they committed themselves later on. We had one customer within the utilities business that took them approximately six to seven years to make a decision to but first one. We not ever really sold any programmable controllers into the intended market which was mechanical system tool manage for example lathes, grinders and stuff, but we did, as luck should have it, stumble throughout the transfer line market which was and still is the mainstay, long-term market for the application of programmable controllers. Discreet components manufacturing in an automatic environment, i.e., mass production, continues to be, and probably shall be for the future, the mainstay regarding the programmable controller industry. Some regarding the more interesting stories center around the personalities and experiences as opposed to programmable controller. Modicon,s third president (or fourth, whether you count my two-week stint) was Don Kramer. When Don Kramer was chosen as president, we decided to leave out and celebrate at the Lanum Club in Andover. At the time, we felt we should celebrate over most martinis and food. As we were leaving the shop for the Lanum Club, Don created the aside comment that "the location is dingy and wants a paint job. As we were leaving, I mentioned to Don that as president you have knowledge of to change what you say, and not be very open---you need to be little careful about what you speak due to the fact that employees, customers, and boards of directors tend to take what you speak as truth. Rather than listen to meaning, they listen to literal statements, and one should be careful. We went over to Lanum Club and had a nice glowing 3 hours of discussion, food, and drink. Coming back, as we entered the Modicon lobby, we noticed that there was scaffolding about and people were painting. We went over and asked Lou as to howcome these people are painting since, at the time, we don,t have any money. Who ordered this paint job? And Lou looked Don Kramer straight within the eye, and said, "Why you did, Mr. Kramer. Nuff said. As was mentioned many times, your author, that,s me---Dick Morley---is supposed to be the inventor regarding the programmable controller. This is at best, partially true. The thing that created the Modicon business and the programmable controller really take off was not the 084, but the 184. The 184 was done in creation cycle by Michael Greenberg, one regarding the greatest engineers I have ever met. He, and Lee Rousseau, president and marketeer, came up with a specification and a creation that revolutionized the automation business. they built the 184 over the objections of yours truly. I was a purist and felt that all those bells and whistles and stuff weren,t "pure, and somehow they were contaminating my "glorious design, Dead wrong again, Morley! they were specifically right on! the 184 was a walloping success, and it---not the 084, not the invention regarding the programmable controller---but an products drafted to meet the wants regarding the marketplace and the customer, called the 184, took off and created Modicon and the programmable controller the business and sector it is today. My compliments to 3 chefs---Lee Rousseau and Mike Greenberg.







The issue of quality in programmable controllers is a story that is normally taken for granted. The gentle reader should do not forget that our engineering people came from the computer sector where reliability in those days was a phantom---a phantom of design, a phantom of cost. People felt that reliability was something other people did, and that if we only should deliver faster computers, even if they didn,t work, everything should be fine. When the programmable controller was designed, it was drafted in to be reliable. We used many of life per details bit by utilizing D-rated components, huge memory ferrite cores, relatively stable and huge etchings on printed circuit boards, totally enclosed processes and conductive cooling. No supporters were used, and outside space was not allowed to enter the system for fear of contamination and corrosion. Mentally, we had imagined the programmable controller being underneath a truck, within the open, and being driven around---driven around in Texas, driven around in Alaska. Below those circumstances, we anted it to survive. The other requirement was that it stood on a pole helping sprint an utility or a microwave station which was not climate controlled, and not serviced at all. Below those circumstances, should it work for the years that it was intended to be? Should it be walled in? Should it be bolted in an procedure that was expected to final 20 years? The humorous side of this is though we did all those designs and very carefully tried to make this system as intrinsically reliable as we could, not by redundancy, but by building well. In other words, it was drafted to be built, it was drafted to be designed, and it was drafted to be reliable. We, however, as engineers, didn,t understand the accountants and manufacturing. those 3 have their grail, shipments by the end regarding the month. As distant as we should ascertain at the time, shipments were created independent of quality and independent of whether or not the system ran. Within the early days regarding the programmable controller and Modicon, even though I wasn,t a direct employee and an owner, I should release out my home phone no. to many of our critical clients such that if they had a problem, they should call me directly. Multiple calls indicated that when we shipped near the end regarding the month, let us speak October 34th, that the machinery should not run; and secondly, when they opened the container and took the mechanical system apart, cards were missing, bolts were on the bottom regarding the cabinetry, and some regarding the cards were not fully inserted. In other words, to make the end regarding the month was many more important than to deliver machinery that ran. to place it mildly, we were pissed! How do we as engineers maintain quality without continual surveillance that is most difficult for the creation and entrepreneurial mind set. What we did was specify and creation "blue boxes. These were cabinetries that the system had to operate in and sprint continuously for a minimum of 24 hours, below load, and below varying conditions. The container was built out of plywood, but its primary intention was to heat cycle the programmable controller below different input/output loads. We also ran, like a specification, that a Tesla coil was to be used on the programmable controller, and that vibration and thumping with a hammer (rubber) should be component regarding the specification. This shall seem unscientific to many of you, but let us assume that you try to obtain your machinery to sprint while somebody purposely tries to destroy it with a rubber hammer or spark coil that he can place anywhere on the system. Remember, your intention is to make the processor stop. That combination significantly depressed those monthly shipments during first period. Like a result of that, however, the message got through. Not only did we build ovens and tests, and pay attention to heat and spark and RF emissions, we should sprint the system continuously even within the shipping crate to obtain the maximum many pre-custom hours we could. It was important to us that we located the mistakes and not the customer and his secondary customer. The language itself, ladder lister, bears some discussion. This specific language was not the invention of Modicon. We hypothesize that the language is very old, and originated in Germany to describe relay circuitry. If one looks at ladder lister, it was our technical community for so long, we somehow ponder those little symboligies definitely look like relays. In fact, it,s a mnemonic shape of rule-based language, very technological and very high level, but drafted in a Darwinian fashion over a period of many decades. The ladder logic construct, "If... Then... is a very powerful construct used this day in expert processes and other rule-based languages. The symbology, allowing normally reveal and normally closed situations as well as parallel and serial representation, was used for many decades prior to the invention regarding the programmable controller. I have worked on machines where the many C-size and D-size prints were hung in special racks, and should be up to 3 feet thick worth of documentation on those drawing sets. The name ladder returns from the fact that on the right-hand regarding the drawing is one force rail and the left-hand side is the other force rail; and in between in a horizontal fashion, is the statement or sequential connection of logical elements which we call relays or relay logic. The initial 084 had only logic in its functionality, and like a result, was marginal. In other words, all we did was replace relays rather than enhance the functionality by a factor of ten that is the entrepreneurial rule. Immediately, of course, based on customer response and our own frustrations, we place thing within the ladder listing language for example addition, multiplication, subtraction, and other functionalities that went distant beyond relay capability and entered the realm of mathematics and set theory. This was still not sufficient, however, and we wanted some method to make a "call to a "subroutine creating use of ladder lister symbology and representation. A software engineer, Chuck Schelberg, and myself were within the conference room one day trying to ascertain how we should make a generic call to functionalities that distant exceeded the relay symbology and representation, and came up together with the "DX function. This function was a block function that should be an element on the ladder logic representation that should perform many functionalities within arrays, motor drive functions, servo functions, extended mathematical functions, PID loops, ad nauseam. We felt there should be an occasional representation and use of these functionalities, and that not many had to be done to programmable controller other than to modify the software. Wrong again! First customer that took delivery of a programmable controller utilizing the DX function, had a capability to be predictable and operate in real time. The RUN light went out, and the time to execute a scan or done transformation regarding the ladder logic went distant beyond the time allowable. Every lone line had a DX function on it. Repeatedly we learned that when you enhance functionality, people use it all. I have not ever drafted a computer that had too many memory. I,ve only drafted computers that have too little memory. Similar thing applies to any other functionality. Conventional wisdom seems to ponder that price/performance depends on only one thing---price---when, in fact, my skills development was that the customer cares little about price. This price/performance tirade being over, one regarding the lessons we learned is that the customer wants functionality over the entire life cycle price installation regarding the job. the customer also wants ease of installation, to have some fun, and to be proud regarding the work he does. Subsequent to he,s finished, he not ever wants to return back.. The machinery should work as installed and as based. At one time, the programmable controller meantime prior to failure within the field was 50,000 hours. This is distant in excess of almost any other kind of electronic or manage equipment. The concept of languages and high-level languages is important. The programmable controller, as it evolved, began to request more and more power, and more and more memory. The memories continually went up as well as power. It is estimated that at one time, within the mid-1970s, that the programmable controller had the equivalent of 3 MIPS processor and 128 kilobytes of memory, which at that time was a significantly powered minicomputer capability. Why? High-level languages want force to sprint them. If we take the equivalent regarding the ladder lister statement "If... Then..., the high-level language as represented here, requires a substantial no. of interpretive compiler, whether you will, generation of underlying code. In other words, this statement spawns significant underlying code that should be sprint quickly, reliably, and contain within it, all aspects of resource allocation and operations resource. The higher position the language, the more powerful the processor apparently has to be sequential to sprint the language. Ladder lister is a high-level rule-based language which, until now, we haven,t talked many about in these terms. Our clients treated the programmable controller like a container of relays, and well they should. Language theory is neither compulsory not desirable for most regarding the clients to know. The customers, instead, understand their problem, and are indeed many smarter than the creation engineers due to the fact that the dimensions of their difficulty distant exceed the relatively simple difficulty of designing a computer software system and language. Ladder lister requires high performance that is one regarding the reasons it has difficulty running on the personal computer even of this day INTRODUCTION TO SCADA SCADA is the abbreviation for Supervisory Manage And Data Acquisition. It generally refers to an non-residential manage system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The process shall be industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:             Non-residential processes with those of manufacturing, production, force generation, fabrication, and refining, and shall sprint in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.             Infrastructure processes should be public or private, and with h2o treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment,  oil and gas pipelines, electrical force transmission and distribution, and huge communication systems.             Facility processes occur most in public facilities and private ones, within buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and manage HVAC, access, and life consumption. A SCADA System usually consists regarding the following subsystems:             A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a person operator, and through which the person operator monitors and controls the process.             A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to process             Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors within the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to supervisory system.             Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to Remote Terminals Units There is, in multiple industries, considerable confusion over the differences between SCADA processes and Distributed manage processes (DCS). Generally speaking, a SCADA system usually refers to an procedure that coordinates, but does not manage processes in real time. The discussion on real-time manage is muddied somewhat by newer telecommunications technology, enabling reliable, little latency, high velocity communications over large areas. Most differences between SCADA and Distributed manage system DCS are culturally determined and can usually be ignored. As communication infrastructures with higher capacity grow to available, the difference between SCADA and DCS shall fade.  Systems concepts The term SCADA usually refers to centralized processes which monitor and manage entire sites, or complexes of processes spread out over huge regions (anything between an non-residential plant and a country). Most manage actions are performed automatically by remote terminals units ("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host manage functions are usually restricted to simple overriding or supervisory position intervention. For example, a PLC shall manage the flow of cooling h2o through component of an non-residential process, but the SCADA system shall let operators to change the set points for the flow, and enable alarm conditions, for example loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback manage loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall performance regarding the loop. Data acquistion begins at the RTU or PLC position and includes meter readings and machinery status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a method that a manage room operator creating use of the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data shall also be fed to a Historian, often built on a commodity Database Management System, to let trending and other analytical auditing. SCADA processes typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to like a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A spot represents a lone input or output price monitored or controlled by the system. Points shall be neither "hard" or "soft". A hard spot represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft spot conclusions from logic and math operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually remove the distinction by creating every property a "soft" spot expression, which may, within the simplest case, equal a lone hard point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the the past of that point. It's also common to shop more metadata with tags, for example the path to a field device or PLC register, creation time comments, and alarm information. Person Mechanical system Interface A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a person operator, and through which the person operator controls the process. An HMI is usually linked to SCADA system's databases and software programs, to give trending, diagnostic data, and management details for example scheduled maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for an exact sensor or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides. The HMI system usually presents the details to operating personnel graphically, within the shape of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can look a schematic representation regarding the plant being controlled. For example, a picture of a push connected to a pipe can display the operator that the push is running and how many fluid it is pumping through the pipe at the moment. The operator can then switch the push off. The HMI software shall display the flow rate regarding the fluid within the pipe decrease in real time. Mimic diagrams shall consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or shall consist of digital photographs regarding the process machinery overlain with animated symbols. The HMI product for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the method these points are represented within the interface. These representations shall be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light within the field, or as complex like a multi-projector display representing the position of all regarding the elevators in a skyscraper or all regarding the trains on a railway. An important component of most SCADA implementations are alarms. An alarm is a digital status spot that has neither the price NORMAL or ALARM. Alarms shall be created in such a method that when their requirements are met, they can be activated. An example of an alarm is the "fuel tank empty" light in a car. The SCADA operator's attention is drawn to component regarding the system requiring attention by the alarm. Emails and text messages are often sent along with an alarm activation alerting managers along together with the SCADA operator. Hardware solutions SCADA solutions often have Distributed Manage System (DCS) components. Use of "smart" RTUs or PLCs, which are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the master computer, is increasing. A functional block programming language, IEC 61131-3, is frequently used to make programs which sprint on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language for example the C programming language or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical manage arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform most the creation and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC. Since about 1998, virtually all primary PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA systems, many of them creating use of reveal and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most primary PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software developer. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the machinery to digital values for example the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements for example pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting digital setpoints to electrical signals and sending these electrical signals out to machinery the RTU can manage equipment, for example opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the velocity of a pump. Quality SCADA RTUs have these characteristics:             Data Networking capability             Data Reliability             Data Security. Supervisory Station The term "Supervisory Station" refers to servers and software responsible for communicating together with the field machinery (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to HMI software running on workstations within the manage room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the master station should be composed of a lone PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station shall with multiple servers, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity regarding the system the multiple servers shall often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous manage and monitoring within the function of a server failure. Initially, more "open" platforms for example Linux were not as widely used due to highly dynamic development environment and due to the fact that a SCADA customer that was can afford the field hardware and devices to be controlled should usually also purchase UNIX or OpenVMS licenses. Today, all primary operating processes are used for most master station servers and HMI workstations.  Operational methodology For some installations, the costs that should result from the manage system failing is extremely high. Possibly even lives should be lost. Hardware for some SCADA processes is ruggedized to withstand temperature, vibration, and voltage extremes, but in most critical installations reliability is enhanced by possessing redundant hardware and communications channels, up to spot of possessing multiple fully equipped manage centres. A failing component shall be quickly identified and its functionality automatically taken over by backup hardware. A failed component can often be replaced without interrupting the process. The reliability of such processes shall be calculated statistically and is stated as the mean time to failure, that is a variant of mean time between failures. The calculated mean time to failure of such high reliability processes shall be on the order of centuries.  Communication infrastructure and methods SCADA processes have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct serial or modem connections to meet communication requirements, consequently Ethernet and IP over SONET / SDH shall also be frequently used at huge webpages for example railways and force stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. This has also return below threat with some clients wanting SCADA data to venture over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy regarding the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though. SCADA protocols are drafted to be very compact and many are drafted to send details to master station only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols with Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all primary SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP/IP. It is good security engineering practice to stay away from connecting SCADA processes to World large web so the attack surface is reduced. RTUs and other automatic controller devices were being developed prior to the advent of sector large standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of manage protocols. Between the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to make their own protocol to "lock in" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is being compiled here. Recently, OLE for Process Manage (OPC) has grow to a widely accepted solution for intercommunicating different hardware and software, allowing communication even between devices originally not intended to be component of an non-residential network.  Trends in SCADA There is a trend for PLC and HMI/SCADA software to be more "mix-and-match". Within the mid 1990s, the typical DAQ I/O manufacturer supplied machinery that communicated creating use of proprietary protocols over a suitable-distance carrier like RS-485. End users who invested in an exact vendor's hardware solution often located themselves restricted to a limited decision of machinery when requirements changed (e.g. system expansions or performance improvement). To mitigate such problems, reveal communication protocols for example IEC870-5-101/104 and DNP 3.0 (serial and over IP) became increasingly well-known between SCADA machinery manufacturers and solution providers alike. Reveal architecture SCADA processes enabled users to mix-and-match products from different vendors to develop solutions that were better than those that should be achieved when restricted to a lone vendor's product offering. Towards the late 1990s, the shift towards reveal communications continued with lone I/O manufacturers as well, who adopted reveal message structures for example Modbus RTU and Modbus ASCII (originally most developed by Modicon) over RS-485. By 2000, most I/O makers offered completely reveal interfacing for example Modbus TCP over Ethernet and IP. SCADA processes are coming in line with standard networking technologies. Ethernet and TCP/IP based protocols are replacing the older proprietary standards. Consequently sure characteristics of frame-based network communication cutting edge designs (determinism, synchronization, protocol selection, environment suitability) have restricted the adoption of Ethernet in a little specialized applications, the vast majority of markets have accepted Ethernet networks for HMI/SCADA. "Next generation" protocols for example OPC-UA, Wonderware's SuiteLink, GE Fanuc's Proficy and Rockwell Automation's FactoryTalk, take advantage of XML, web services and other technological web technologies, creating them more with no problems IT supportable. Together with the emergence of software like a service within the broader software industry, a little vendors have begun offering application specific SCADA processes hosted on remote platforms over the Internet, for example, PumpView by MultiTrode. This removes the need to install and commission processes at the end-user's facility and takes advantage of security features already available in World large web technology, VPNs and SSL. Some concerns with security, World large web connection reliability, and latency. SCADA processes are becoming increasingly ubiquitous. Thin clients, web portals, and web based products are gaining popularity with most primary vendors. The increased convenience of end users viewing their processes remotely introduces security considerations.  Security issues The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and reveal solutions together together with the increased many connections between SCADA processes and office networks and the World large web has created them more vulnerable to attacks. Consequently, the security of SCADA-based processes has return into question as they can be increasingly seen as extremely vulnerable to cyberwarfare/cyberterrorism attacks. In particular, security researchers are concerned about:             the lack of concern about security and authentication within the design, deployment and procedure of existing SCADA networks             the mistaken belief that SCADA processes have the benefit of security through obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces             the mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure due to the fact that they can be purportedly physically secured             the mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure due to the fact that they can be supposedly disconnected from the World large web Due to the fact that regarding the mission-critical nature of a huge many SCADA systems, such attacks could, in a worst case scenario, cause massive financial losses through loss of data or actual physical destruction, misuse or theft, even loss of life, neither directly or indirectly. Whether such concerns shall cause a move distant from the use of existing SCADA processes for mission-critical applications towards more secure architectures and configurations remains to be seen, provided that at fewest some influential people in corporate and governmental circles trust that the benefits and decreased initial costs of SCADA based processes still outweigh potential costs and risks] Recently, multiple security vendors, for example Byres Security, Inc., Non-residential Defender Inc., Confirm Spot and Innominate, and N-Dimension Solutions have begun to address these risks by developing lines of specialized non-residential firewall and VPN solutions for TCP/IP-based SCADA networks. The difficulty according to Eric Byres, CEO of Byres Security, is that "while many infrastructure organizations are doing good work, others are falling behind. When you have knowledge of this diversity of effort, you can be only as effective as your weakest link. Also, the ISA Security Compliance Institute (ISCI) is emerging to formalize SCADA security testing starting as soon as 2009. ISCI is conceptually similar to private testing and certification that was performed by vendors since 2007, for example the Achilles certification program from Wurldtech Security Technologies, Inc. and MUSIC certification from Mu Security,  Inc. Eventually, standards being defined by ISA SP99 WG4 shall supersede these initial sector consortia efforts, but probably not prior to 2011.